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Final Copy 289 Ga. 412 S10G1337. THE STATE v. THACKSTON.

THOMPSON, Justice. While on probation in Douglas County, Georgia, Hulon Thackston was charged with drug-related offenses in Paulding County, Georgia, after police stopped him for a traffic violation in March 2007 and discovered methamphetamine during a search of his car. The Douglas County Court issued a probation warrant for his arrest based on the Paulding County charges. Thackston was arrested on the probation warrant in October 2007, and while executing the warrant, officers saw methamphetamine on a table. They then obtained and executed a search warrant and found more methamphetamine and drug paraphernalia. Thackston moved to suppress the evidence seized both in March and October in the Paulding County criminal case. The trial court granted the motion on the grounds that the March seizure was unconstitutional and the October search and seizure constituted fruit of the poisonous tree. The Paulding County prosecutor nolle prossed the criminal charges against Thackston. Thackston then filed a motion to

suppress in the Douglas County probation revocation case on the same grounds raised in the criminal case and filed a plea in bar, arguing that the State was barred from contesting the motion to suppress under the doctrine of collateral estoppel. The probation court denied the plea in bar, denied the motion to suppress, and revoked Thackston's probation. The Court of Appeals reversed, concluding that the elements of collateral estoppel were met and the State was precluded from relitigating the suppression issue in the revocation case. Thackston v. State, 303 Ga. App. 718, 720 (694 SE2d 136) (2010). In reaching this conclusion, however, the Court of Appeals failed to determine preliminarily whether the exclusionary rule applied in probation revocation proceedings. Instead, it focused only on the merits of Thackston's challenge to the validity of the search warrant and the issue of collateral estoppel. The State filed a petition for certiorari which we granted to determine whether the exclusionary rule applies in probation revocation proceedings. We hold it does not and reverse the decision of the Court of Appeals. 1. The exclusionary rule is a judicially created remedy adopted to protect Fourth Amendment rights by deterring illegal searches and seizures.
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It is not intended to "`cure the invasion of the defendant's rights which he has already suffered,'" United States v. Leon, 468 U. S. 897, 906 (104 SC 3405, 82 LE2d 677) (1984), and it does not "proscribe the introduction of illegally seized evidence in all proceedings or against all persons." Stone v. Powell, 428 U. S. 465, 486 (96 SC 3037, 49 LE2d 1067) (1976). Because the rule is not constitutionally mandated and because of its broad deterrent purpose, it consistently has been applied only "where its remedial objectives are thought most efficaciously served." United States v. Calandra, 414 U. S. 338, 348 (94 SC 613, 38 LE2d 561) (1974). See Pennsylvania Bd. of Probation & Parole v. Scott, 524 U. S. 357, 365 (118 SC 2014, 141 LE2d 344) (1988) (refusing to apply exclusionary rule in parole revocation hearings because it would hinder function of state parole systems and alter flexible, administrative nature of parole revocation proceedings); Immigration &c. Svc. v. Lopez-Mendoza, 468 U. S. 1032 (104 SC 3479, 82 LE2d 778) (1984) (rule not applicable in civil deportation proceedings due to high social costs of allowing immigrant to remain illegally in United States and incompatibility of rule with civil, administrative nature of proceedings); United States v. Janis, 428 U. S. 433 (96 SC 3021, 49 LE2d 1046) (1976)
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(exclusionary rule not applicable in civil tax proceedings because costs of exclusion would outweigh marginal deterrence benefits); Calandra, supra (exclusionary rule not applicable in grand jury proceedings because flexible, non-adversarial nature of those proceedings would be jeopardized by application of the rule). In deciding when to extend the exclusionary rule to contexts other than criminal trials, the United States Supreme Court has adopted a balancing test to weigh the likelihood of deterrence against the costs of withholding information in the truth-seeking process. Illinois v. Krull, 480 U. S. 340, 347-348 (107 SC 1160, 94 LE2d 364) (1987). See State v. Young, 234 Ga. 488, 491 (216 SE2d 586) (1975). Here, the context to which Thackston seeks to apply the exclusionary rule is probation revocation hearings, the purpose of which is to determine whether the probationer has complied with the conditions of his probation and the outcome of which significantly informs the State whether the probationer is ready or capable of rehabilitation by integration into society. As stated by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in United States v. Winsett, 518 F2d 51, 54-55 (9th Cir. 1975), a case involving the issue now before this Court:
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The primary purpose of probation, which has become an integral part of our penal system, is to promote the rehabilitation of the criminal by allowing him to integrate into society as a constructive individual, without being confined for the term of the sentence imposed. Cf. Morrissey v. Brewer, 408 U. S. 471, 477 (92 SC 2593, 33 LE2d 484) (1972). An important aspect of our probation system is the placing of certain restrictions on the probationer, such as the requirement that he not associate with criminals or travel outside the judicial district. These conditions serve a dual purpose in that they enhance the chance for rehabilitation while simultaneously affording society a measure of protection. Because violation of probation conditions may indicate that the probationer is not ready or is incapable of rehabilitation by integration into society, it is extremely important that all reliable evidence shedding light on the probationer's conduct be available during probation revocation proceedings. (Emphasis omitted.) Recognizing the importance of having available for consideration all reliable, relevant evidence in probation revocation proceedings, the Winsett Court refused to extend the exclusionary rule to probation revocation hearings because its application would frustrate the remedial purposes of the probation system. Id. The United States Supreme Court has not specifically addressed whether the federal exclusionary rule applies in probation revocation hearings but has refused to extend the rule to parole revocation proceedings. See Scott, supra. Like the Winsett Court, the Court in Scott acknowledged the

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significant costs imposed by the exclusionary rule because it precludes consideration of reliable, probative evidence and detracts from the truthfinding process. Id. at 364-365. The Court there emphasized, "[a]lthough we have held these costs to be worth bearing in certain circumstances, our cases have repeatedly emphasized that the rule's `costly toll' upon truth-seeking and law enforcement objectives presents a high obstacle for those urging application of the rule. [Cit.]" Id. Although Scott dealt with parole, not probation, revocation hearings, we find no legally significant difference in the importance of the truthseeking functions in either type of proceeding. In both, the factfinder is charged with the responsibility of determining whether the conditions of release have been complied with and the protection of the public and its interest in ensuring that criminal sentences are properly served. We therefore agree with the rationale of Scott and Winsett and find it extremely important to the administration of our state probation system that all reliable evidence relevant to the probationer's conduct be available during revocation proceedings. At the same time, we find the exclusionary rule's deterrence benefits do
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not outweigh the costs to the truth-seeking objective which is paramount in our probation system. Application of the rule to revocation hearings would provide only minimal deterrence benefits because "application of the rule in the criminal trial context already provides significant deterrence of unconstitutional searches." Scott, supra, 524 U. S. at 364. See Winsett, supra at 54. Moreover, the rule itself is based on the premise that a police officer knows the way in which he conducts a search will affect the prosecution's ability to secure a conviction in a criminal trial. To apply the exclusionary rule to probation revocation proceedings would thus require an assumption that every officer also conducts searches as if the suspect was also a probationer and with knowledge that evidence procured may be used to ensure compliance with probation conditions via administrative proceedings. We find this to be an unrealistic assumption given the police officer's primary goal of obtaining evidence to assist in the successful prosecution of those who commit crimes. See Janis, supra, 428 U. S. at 458 (use of evidence in probation revocation hearing "falls outside the offending officer's zone of primary interest"); Calandra, supra, 414 U. S. at 351 (unrealistic to assume application of exclusionary rule to grand jury proceedings would
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further goal of deterrence). See also North Carolina v. Lombardo, 306 N.C. 594, 600 (295 SE2d 399) (1982) (extension of exclusionary rule to probation revocation hearings adds nothing to deterrent effect because rule is built on notion that seized evidence provides foundation for and affects strength of State's criminal case at trial). Even accepting this assumption, however, the officer will be substantially deterred from violating the suspect's Fourth Amendment rights by the application of the exclusionary rule to the criminal trial. See Scott, supra, 524 U. S. at 368. Because application of the exclusionary rule to probation revocation proceedings would achieve only marginal deterrent effects and would significantly alter and affect the proper administration of the probation system in this state, we find the deterrence benefits of the exclusionary rule do not outweigh the costs to the system. Therefore, under the proper balancing test, neither the federal nor state constitution requires application of the exclusionary rule in state probation revocation proceedings. See Krull, supra, 480 U. S. at 347-348. Georgia thus joins the majority of jurisdictions which have considered the issue and reached a conclusion consistent with the

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reluctance of courts to extend the exclusionary rule beyond the trial setting1 and the general recognition of the important administrative goals served by state probation systems. See Scott, 524 U. S. 357, 365-367; Admissibility, in Federal Probation Revocation Proceeding, of Evidence Obtained Through Unreasonable Search and Seizure or in Absence of Miranda Warnings, 30 ALR Fed. 824 (1976). To the extent the Court of Appeals' decision in Amiss v. State, 135 Ga. App. 784 (219 SE2d 28) (1975), which did not apply the proper constitutional balancing test, is contrary to our holding today, it is overruled.2

Virtually every jurisdiction that has considered the issue has similarly determined that application of the exclusionary rule does not significantly further the rule's goal of deterrence in a probation revocation proceeding. See, e.g., United States v. Bazzano, 712 F2d 826 (3d Cir. 1983); United States v. Armstrong, 187 F3d 392 (4 th Cir. 1999); United States v. Brown, 488 F2d 94 (5 th Cir. 1973); United States v. Farmer, 512 F2d 160 (6 th Cir. 1975); United States v. Hill, 447 F2d 817 (7 th Cir. 1971); United States v. Frederickson, 581 F2d 711 (8 th Cir. 1978); Winsett, supra, 518 F2d 51; United States v. Finney, 897 F2d 1047 (10th Cir. 1990). For state cases see Payne v. Robinson, 541 A2d 504 (II) (Conn. 1988) and cases cited therein; State v. Lombardo, supra, 306 N.C. at 600; Wright v. Ohio Adult Parole Auth., 661 NE2d 728, 735 (1996) and cases cited therein. We also overrule the following cases to the extent they hold illegally seized evidence is inadmissible in probation revocation hearings: Colvert v. State, 237 Ga. App. 670 (516 SE2d 377) (1999) (vacating and remanding where trial court revoked probation based on evidence that may have been subject to suppression); Owens v. State, 153 Ga. App. 525 (2) (265 SE2d 856) (1980) (reversing revocation of probation based on improper admission of illegally seized evidence at revocation hearing); Adams v. State, 153 Ga. App. 41 (264 SE2d 532) (1980) (holding illegally seized evidence inadmissible in revocation hearing); Porter v. State, 142 Ga. App. 481 (236 SE2d 172) (1977) (same); Giles v. State, 149 Ga. App. 263 (1) (254 SE2d 154) (1979) (same); Austin v. State, 148 Ga. App. 784 (1) (252 SE2d 696) (1979) (same). 9
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2. Nor do we find any federal or state statutory law requiring application of the exclusionary rule in probation revocation proceedings. Although Thackston argues the admission of such evidence is prohibited under OCGA

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