Orman v. Charles Schwab & Co.
State: Illinois
Docket No: 82697
Orman v. Charles Schwab, No. 82697 (11/20/97)
NOTICE: Under Supreme Court Rule 367 a party has 21 days after the filing of the opinion
to request a rehearing. Also, opinions are subject to modification, correction or withdrawal at
anytime prior to issuance of the mandate by the Clerk of the Court. Therefore, because the
following slip opinion is being made available prior to the Court's final action in this matter,
it cannot be considered the final decision of the Court. The official copy of the following
opinion will be published by the Supreme Court's Reporter of Decisions in the Official
Reports advance sheets following final action by the Court.
Docket No. 82697--Agenda 26--September 1997.
ROBERT ORMAN et al., Appellants, v. CHARLES SCHWAB & COMPANY,
INC., et al., Appellees.
Opinion filed November 20, 1997.
JUSTICE HEIPLE delivered the opinion of the court:
At issue is whether Illinois breach of fiduciary duty and breach of contract
claims arising out of a broker's retention of order flow payments are implicitly
preempted because such claims would stand as an obstacle to the accomplishment
and execution of the full purposes and objectives of Congress in enacting the
Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (15 U.S.C. sec. 78a et seq. (1994)). The plaintiffs
in the three class action lawsuits consolidated for review sued the broker-
defendants for retaining order flow payments, which they contend runs afoul of
Illinois agency law. The trial court granted defendants' motions to dismiss
plaintiffs' complaints on the ground that their claims were preempted by the
Securities & Exchange Act of 1934, and the appellate court affirmed (285 Ill.
App. 3d 937). This court allowed plaintiffs' petition for leave to appeal (166 Ill.
2d R. 315). For the reasons expressed below, we affirm.
ANALYSIS
The plaintiffs in these consolidated class actions assert the rights of a
putative nationwide class of customers of defendants, Charles Schwab &
Company, Inc., Quick and Reilly, Inc., and Olde Discount Corporation, discount
securities brokerage firms which plaintiffs retained to execute their securities
transactions. The gravamen of plaintiffs' complaints is that the defendants violated
Illinois agency and/or contract law when they failed to remit to plaintiffs order
flow payments received in executing plaintiffs' securities transactions. Order flow
payments consist of both monetary and nonmonetary remuneration paid to a dealer
by a market maker in exchange for the dealer's routing a customer's orders
through the market maker. As plaintiffs observe, brokers are their customers'
agents and as such owe them certain fiduciary duties. See Martin v. Heinold
Commodities, Inc., 117 Ill. 2d 67, 76-77 (1987). Under traditional agency law, an
agent who makes a profit in connection with transactions conducted on behalf of
the principal is under a duty to remit that profit to the principal absent an
agreement to the contrary. Janes v. First Federal Savings & Loan Ass'n, 57 Ill.
2d 398, 410 (1974), quoting Restatement (Second) of Agency sec. 388 (1958).
Plaintiffs' complaints allege breach of fiduciary duty and breach of contract
premised upon defendants' failure to remit the order flow payments they received
to the plaintiffs.[fn1]
Defendants counter that the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (Exchange
Act) (15 U.S.C. sec. 78a et seq. (1994)) implicitly preempts plaintiffs' state-law
claims. The preemption doctrine is rooted in the supremacy clause of the United
States Constitution, which mandates that "the Laws of the United States *** shall
be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound
thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary
notwithstanding." U.S. Const., art. VI, cl. 2. An act of Congress or regulatory law
promulgated thereunder may supersede the statutory, regulatory or common law
of any state where such "[is] the clear and manifest purpose of Congress."
Cipollone v. Liggett Group, Inc., 505 U.S. 504, 516, 20 L. Ed. 2d 407, 422, 112
S. Ct. 2608, 2617, quoting Rice v. Santa Fe Elevator Corp., 31 U.S. 218, 230, 91
L. Ed. 1447, 1459, 67 S. Ct. 1146, 1152 (1947). A congressional act can either
expressly or implicitly preempt a state cause of action. Freightliner Corp. v.
Myrick, 514 U.S. 280, 287, 131 L. Ed. 2d 385, 392, 115 S. Ct. 1483, 1487 (1995).
Here defendants urge that plaintiffs' state claims relating to order flow payments
are implicitly preempted by the Exchange Act because they "stand[ ] as an
obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of the full purposes and objectives
of Congress," as manifested in the language, structure and underlying goals of the
statute at issue. See Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U.S. 52, 67-68, 85 L. Ed. 581, 587,
61 S. Ct. 399, 404 (1941).
Determining whether plaintiffs' state-law claims are implicitly preempted
by the Exchange Act requires an understanding of the Exchange Act's history and
the evolution of order flow payments. Congress enacted the Exchange Act in 1934
to regulate the various aspects of the securities industry; its implementing agency,
the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), is responsible for adopting
regulations which foster capital formation, facilitate competition and protect
investors in the vastly complex array of markets that constitute the securities
industry. Congress subsequently enacted amendments to the Exchange Act in 1975
(1975 Amendments) to cure "the securities industry's languor in the face of great
changes and opportunities." S. Rep. No. 94--75, at 1, reprinted in 1975
U.S.C.C.A.N. 179, 180. Concerned with the misallocation of capital, widespread
inefficiencies, and undesirable and potentially harmful fragmentation of trading (S.
Rep. No. 94--75, at 1, reprinted in 1975 U.S.C.C.A.N. 179, 180), the 1975
Amendments called upon the SEC to develop a "National Market System" which
would facilitate the "economically efficient execution of securities transactions"
and "fair competition among brokers and dealers, among exchange markets, and
between exchange markets and markets other than exchange markets." 15 U.S.C.
secs. 78k--1(a)(1)(C)(i), (a)(1)(c)(ii) (1994).
The SEC's responsibilities included implementing regulations to "assure
the prompt, accurate, reliable, and fair collection *** [and] distribution *** of
information with respect to *** transactions in such securities and the fairness and
usefulness of the form and content of such information." 15 U.S.C. sec. 78k--
1(c)(1)(B) (1994). In 1977, the SEC exercised its authority and adopted Rule 10b--
10, a "uniform rule applicable to all who wish to effect transactions for or with
investors" which "adjust[ed] regulatory requirements to eliminate those for which
compliance costs appear to be disproportionate to the practical benefits of investor
protection thereby obtained." (Securities Confirmations Proposed Rule, SEC
Exchange Act Release No. 12806, reprinted in 41 Fed. Reg. 41,432, 41,432
(1977)). In pertinent part, Rule 10b--10 required that a broker-dealer disclose on
a customer's confirmation statement "whether any other remuneration has been or
will be received and that the source and amount of such other remunerations will
be furnished upon written request." 17 C.F.R. sec. 240.10b--10(a)(7)(iv) (1997).
Rule 10b--10 was in addition to section 28(a) of the 1975 Amendments, which
provided in pertinent part:
"The rights and remedies provided by this chapter shall be
in addition to any and all other rights that may exist at law or in
equity ***. Nothing in this chapter shall affect the jurisdiction of
the securities commission (or any agency or officer performing like
functions) of any state over any security or any person insofar as
it does not conflict with the provisions of this chapter or the rules
and regulations thereunder." 15 U.S.C. sec. 78bb(a) (1994).
Thus Congress and the SEC achieved the appropriate balance between necessary
regulation and free market forces in advancing the National Market System.
Substantively, the 1975 Amendments contained a variety of provisions
intended to increase the number of market participants, develop competitors to the
traditional stock exchanges and utilize emerging technology to increase
competition between the exchanges and market makers for retail customer order
flow. Market 2000: An Examination of Current Equity Market Developments,
Market Regulation Division, Securities and Exchange Commission 5-6 (1994). It
was hoped that "[i]f market makers in a particular market center have reasonable
expectations that they will receive a greater amount of [customer] order flow if
they make markets which are consistently better in terms of price, depth or ease
of execution *** they will be more likely to compete aggressively thereby
providing a better and more efficient" National Market System. Development of
a National Market System, Exchange Act Release No. 34--15671, Fed. Sec. L.
Rep. (CCH) par. 81,572 (1979). Toward this end, the 1975 Amendments abolished
fixed commission rates in order to increase competition within and between
securities markets. See 15 U.S.C. sec. 78(e)(1) (1994).
The 1975 Amendments have been successful, prompting market makers to
develop and utilize nontraditional markets such as the over-the-counter (OTC)
market and the NASDAQ to effectuate trades, which has in turn has increased
customer options with respect to how and at what prices they trade securities.
Integral to the market makers' ability to attract steady streams of customer order
flow for traditional and nontraditional markets has been the practice of paying
"order flow payments." Generally speaking, payment for order flow is the practice
of market makers or exchange specialists compensating brokerage firms for
directing customer orders to them for execution. The order flow payment practice
evolved in the early 1980s and typically includes both monetary and nonmonetary
remuneration to broker-dealers in exchange for their routing their customers'
transactions through the market makers.[fn2] When the practice of order flow
payments evolved, the National Association of Securities Dealers took the position
that the practice was governed by Rule 10b-10, the 1977 all-purpose provision
requiring that broker-dealers disclose on a customer's confirmation statement
whether any other remuneration has been or will be received and that the source
and amount of such other remunerations will be furnished upon written request.
17 C.F.R. sec. 240.10b--10(a)(7)(iv) (1997). See, e.g., National Association of
Securities Dealers Notice to Members, NTM No. 85--32 (1985) (Rule 10b--10
applies to "payments received by a retail firm from a market maker in return for
their directing order flow to the market maker").
As evidenced by the instant plaintiffs' persistent references to order flow
payments as "kickbacks," the practice has its detractors. See generally Note, The
Perils of Payment for Order Flow, 107 Harv. L. Rev. 1675 (May 1994). The SEC,
sensitive to the various concerns raised by the practice, has studied its impact on
both markets and consumers since as early as 1984. See SEC Release No. 34--
33026, reprinted in 58 Fed. Reg. 52,934, 52,935 (1993). After a thorough and
comprehensive study of order flow payments, with input from participants
industrywide, the SEC acknowledged arguments that order flow payments
produced economic benefits to customers, including: (1) lower unit costs; (2)
increased retail brokerage firm revenue; (3) lowered commissions; (4) more
expeditious executions; (5) enhanced customer services; (6) increased competition
from automated execution systems and related practices; (7) increased competition
between wholesale dealers and exchanges and vertically integrated firms; and (8)
reduced execution costs in all markets, including the exchanges. SEC Release No.
34--33026, reprinted in 58 Fed. Reg. at 52,939-40 (1993). Notwithstanding the
far-reaching benefits identified, the SEC also recognized that order flow payments
raise concerns as to whether the customer is being treated fairly. Payment for
Order Flow, SEC Release No. 34--3026, at 24-26, reprinted in 59 Fed. Reg.
55,006 (1994).
Accordingly, in 1994 the SEC struck a deliberate balance: formulating
disclosure requirements that provide investors with relevant, important information
at key points, while at the same time avoiding impractical and burdensome
disclosure requirements that might compromise the contributions of the practice
to market competition. Specifically, on October 24, 1994, the SEC promulgated
an amendment to Rule 10b--10 which, in pertinent part, added paragraph (9)(e),
which defined order flow payments, and subparagraph (a)(7)(iii), which required
disclosure of order flow at time of confirmation. In addition, the SEC promulgated
Rule 11Acl--3, which required disclosure of the practice of order flow payments
at the time an account is opened and annually thereafter. SEC Release No. 34--
34902, reprinted in 59 Fed. Reg. 55,006, 55,007-11 (1994). Finally, the SEC
delayed implementation of the new rules "to provide firms with four months to
make the necessary systems and forms changes to prepare for the
implementation"; this initial four-month "safe harbor" was extended an additional
seven months until October of 1995 in further acknowledgment of the complex
system changes that the additional disclosure rules necessitated. See Payment for
Order Flow, SEC Release No. 35473, Fed. Sec. L. Rep. (CCH) par. 85,606, at
86,410 (March 10, 1995).
Significantly, the SEC rejected proposals that order flow payments be
passed through to the customers. SEC Release No. 34--34902, reprinted in 59 Fed.
Reg. at 55,011 n.42 (1994). Moreover, the SEC likewise rejected as unworkable
its initial proposal that brokers disclose the amount of remuneration received in
exchange for order flow. SEC Release No. 34--34902, reprinted in 59 Fed. Reg.
at 55,010 n.39 (1994).
The order flow payments at issue in plaintiffs' complaints all took place
prior to the SEC's 1994 promulgation of the Rule 10b--10 amendments and Rule
11Acl--3. Plaintiffs contend defendants are liable to them under state agency law
notwithstanding that defendants complied with the 1977 version of Rule 10b--10
by providing plaintiffs with confirmation slips apprising them that remuneration
may have been received from the brokers through whom their transactions were
executed and that, upon request, the amounts would be disclosed. Plaintiffs argue
that defendants' compliance with Rule 10b--10 cannot be invoked to preempt their
state-law claims because the practice of order flow payments was not even in
existence at the time the rule was promulgated. Additionally, plaintiffs observe
that Rule 10b--10 was not intended as a safe harbor against state laws which
exceeded its requirements; rather, Rule 10b--10 was intended to prescribe only
minimum disclosure obligations. Ettinger v. Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner &
Smith, Inc., 835 F.2d 1031, 1034 (3d Cir. 1987), quoting Securities Exchange Act
Release No. 13,508, Fed. Sec. L. Rep. (CCH) par. 81,143, at 87,930 n.28 (" `[t]he
rule does not attempt to set forth all possible categories of material information
to be disclosed by broker-dealers in connection with a particular transaction in
securities' "). Accordingly, plaintiffs contend that additional disclosure
requirements that complement Rule 10b--10 and provide added security to
customers are entirely consistent therewith and are not preempted. Cf. CTS Corp.
v. Dynamics Corp. of America, 481 U.S. 69, 77, 95 L. Ed. 2d 67, 77, 107 S. Ct.
1637, 1643 (1987) (Indiana statute containing stricter takeover requirements did
not conflict with the Williams Act); American Airlines, Inc. v. Wolens, 513 U.S.
219, 130 L. Ed. 2d 715, 115 S. Ct. 817 (1995) (establishing that a plaintiff may
pursue a breach of contract claim against airline despite the existence of a
comprehensive federal regulatory scheme governing the industry).
Though plaintiffs are correct that the practice of order flow payments had
not commenced until several years after Rule 10b--10 was adopted, it nevertheless
remains true that Rule 10b--10 is of general application and clearly encompassed
the practice when it evolved. Rule 10b--10 required brokers to include on a
customer's confirmation statement whether any other remuneration has been or
will be received and that the source and amount of such other remunerations will
be furnished upon written request. 17 C.F.R. sec. 240.10b--10(a)(7)(iv) (1997).
Order flow payments are "other remuneration" and as such are governed by Rule
10b--10. Equally unavailing is plaintiffs' observation that Rule 10b--10 sets forth
only minimum guidelines and was not intended as a safe harbor for those who do
not meet more rigorous state disclosure laws. The preemption issue at bar must
be decided upon careful consideration of congressional and SEC intent, of which
Rule 10b--10 is only a partial manifestation.
Similarly inconclusive is plaintiffs' reliance on section 28(a) of the
Exchange Act as evidence of Congress' intention to permit their state causes of
action. Section 28(a) provides:
"The rights and remedies provided by this chapter shall be
in addition to any and all other rights that may exist at law or in
equity ***. Nothing in this chapter shall affect the jurisdiction of
the securities commission (or any agency or officer performing like
functions) of any state over any security or any person insofar as
it does not conflict with the provisions of this chapter or the rules
and regulations thereunder." 15 U.S.C. sec. 78bb(a) (1994).
Because section 28(a) expressly acknowledges that state and federal securities
laws may coexist, and further that no provision of the Exchange Act or the SEC's
implementing regulations expressly prohibit application of state agency law to
broker-customer relationships, plaintiffs contend there can be no implicit
preemption. See Leroy v. Great Western United Corp., 443 U.S. 173, 182, 61 L.
Ed. 2d 464, 473, 99 S. Ct. 2710, 2716 (1979) (section 28(a) was intended to
protect, rather than limit, state authority); Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. v.
Epstein, 516 U.S. ___, 134 L. Ed. 2d 6, 116 S. Ct. 873 (1996) (Congress
contemplated the possibility of dual litigation in state and federal courts related
to securities transactions). Section 28(a), however, is of little assistance in
determining whether plaintiffs' state causes of action are preempted. For while it
admittedly permits "the jurisdiction of the securities commission (or any agency
or officer performing like functions) of any state over any security or any person,"
it does so only "insofar as it does not conflict with the provisions of this chapter
or the rules and regulations thereunder." (Emphasis added.) 15 U.S.C. sec.
78bb(a) (1994). As the Supreme Court elucidated in Freightliner Corp. v. Myrick,
514 U.S. at 288-89, 131 L. Ed. 2d at 393, 115 S. Ct. at 1488, a statutory
preemption clause which preempts state laws that conflict with the federal law, but
which also preserves nonconflicting state laws, does not foreclose the possibility
of implied preemption. Even in such a situation, preemption may result where the
state law "stands as an obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of the full
purposes and objectives of Congress," as manifested in the language, structure and
underlying goals of the statute at issue. See Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U.S. 52, 67-
68, 85 L. Ed. 581, 587, 61 S. Ct. 399, 404 (1941).
Thus we consider Congress' intent, as manifested both by the Exchange
Act and the SEC rules and regulations promulgated thereunder. As detailed above,
Congress enacted the 1975 amendments to the Exchange Act to counteract the
languor of the then-existing securities industry and foster a new National Market
System characterized by a more "economically efficient execution of securities
transactions" and increased competition among all securities industry participants,
including "between exchange markets and markets other than exchange markets."
Pub. L. No. 94--29, sec. 7, 89 Stat. 97, 111-12 (1975); 15 U.S.C. sec. 78k--
1(c)(1)(B) (1994). This new market system was intended to address the malaise
Congress perceived was emanating from lack of competition in the securities
industry--an affliction Congress sought to correct in advance of technological
innovations it correctly anticipated would radically alter the securities industry,
both nationally and internationally.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the SEC studied order flow payments at
length and determined, inter alia, that the practice had fueled the growth of
nontraditional markets which had in turn led to industrywide reductions in
commission rates, faster trade executions and enhanced services. Payment for
Order Flow, SEC Release No. 34--3026, at 24-26 (1993). Nor can the impact of
these nontraditional markets be overstated: from 1978 to 1992, the percentage of
consolidated tape trades in NYSE stocks executed by the NYSE declined from
85.99% to 65.17%, while the percentage executed by the regional exchanges and
NASDAQ climbed from 11.55% to 24.22%, and 2.39% to 10.57%, respectively.
Market 2000: An Examination of Current Equity Market Developments, Market
Regulation Division, Securities and Exchange Commission, Ex. 18 (1994).
In 1994, after much deliberation, the SEC amended Rule 10b--10 and
promulgated Rule 11Acl--3 to specifically address the practice of order flow
payments. It thereby required that brokers apprise customers whether they engage
in order flow payment practices at the time the account is first established and
annually thereafter. Additionally, the confirmation slips must advise the customer
that order flow payments were received in the course of effectuating a transaction
and further advise the customer that, upon request, the nature of the remuneration
will be disclosed. After careful study, the SEC determined that these disclosure
requirements struck the appropriate balance between the need to protect consumers
and the need to facilitate the increased competition and reduced commissions
brought about by the practice of order flow payments.
Regarding the scope of the SEC's disclosure rules vis-a-vis the instant
plaintiffs' state-law claims, the SEC's refusal to require brokers to pass through
to customers or even disclose the amount of order flow remuneration in its 1994
disclosure promulgations is significant. See SEC Release No. 34--34902, reprinted
in 59 Fed. Reg. at 55,010 n.39, 55,011 n.42 (1994). The SEC concluded that either
requirement would be unworkable because a wide array of formulas are used in
calculating order flow payments, many of which would be near impossible to
apportion on an individual account basis; moreover, there are a variety of
nonmonetary remunerations which, though their nature must be disclosed upon
request, are not easily valued monetarily. Requiring such would effectively bring
the practice of order flow payments to a halt, jeopardizing all direct and indirect
benefits attributable to the practice. This the SEC refused to do.
Yet this is exactly what plaintiffs urge this court to sanction. Allowing
plaintiffs to advance their breach of fiduciary duty and contract claims would
require the defendants to identify the nature and calculate the value of order flow
payments received so that plaintiffs' damages (the improperly retained order flow
payments) could be assessed. Though the 1994 amendments were not in effect
when the defendants retained the order flow payments at issue, we believe these
amendments are nevertheless instructive as to the scope of the 1977 version of
Rule 10b--10. The deleterious effects to the National Market System that the
SEC's 1994 amendments sought to avoid in allowing brokers to retain order flow
payments and limiting the order flow disclosure requirements were no less a
possibility prior to 1994, when the old Rule 10b--10 applied. Because the purposes
and objectives of Congress in enacting the 1975 amendments to the Exchange Act,
as well as those of the SEC in promulgating Rule 10b--10 in 1977, have remained
constant, we believe what would be deleterious today would have been deleterious
throughout the as-yet brief history of the National Market System. And, indeed,
we observe that the high courts of New York (Guice v. Charles Schwab & Co.,
89 N.Y.2d 31, 674 N.E.2d 282, 651 N.Y.S.2d 352 (1996)) and Minnesota (Dahl
v. Charles Schwab & Co., 545 N.W.2d 918 (Minn. 1996)) have so held, finding
that claims substantially similar to the ones advanced by the instant plaintiffs are
implicitly preempted because they interfere with goals of the Exchange Act. But
see Thomas v. Charles Schwab & Co., No. 95--0307 (W.D. La. July 12, 1995);
Dumont v. Charles Schwab & Co., No. 95--0606 (E.D. La. May 3, 1995) (ruling
that similar claims are not preempted).
The supremacy clause requires that state law yield where it "stands as an
obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of the full purposes and objectives
of Congress," as manifested in the language, structure and underlying goals of the
statute at issue. See Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U.S. 52, 67-68, 85 L. Ed. 581, 587,
61 S. Ct. 399, 404 (1941). Given the history and purpose of Congress' 1975
amendments to the Exchange Act as well as the SEC's implementing regulations
vis-a-vis order flow payment disclosures, we are convinced that allowing
plaintiffs' related state claims to advance would obstruct the National Market
System that Congress intended to foster in enacting the 1975 Amendments.
Accordingly, we affirm the judgment of the appellate court.
Appellate court judgment affirmed.
[fn1] At oral argument, plaintiffs claimed for the first time that one or more of the
defendants may not have complied with Securities and Exchange Commission
Rule 10b--10. 17 C.F.R. sec. 240.10b--10(a)(7)(iv) (1997). Insofar as this issue
was not raised in the lower court proceedings, or briefed before this court, it is
waived.
[fn2] Examples of order flow payments include: cash payments; reciprocal order-
routing relationships; discounts; credit; and free services such as access to industry
analysts reports; accommodation and adjustments of trading errors; access to
specialists proprietary order flow; reduced clearing charges; and participation in
public offerings. Inducements for Order Flow, A Report to the Board of
Governors, National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc., 15-20 (1991).
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